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The Encyclopædia Britannica has been published continuously sinceappearing in fifteen official editions. In recent years, digital versions of the Britannica have been developed, both online and on optical media.
Since the early s, the Britannica has developed several "spin-off" products to leverage its reputation as a reliable reference work and educational tool. The Encyclopedia as known up to was incurring unsustainable losses and the print editions were ended, but it continues on the Internet. Encyclopedias of various types had been published since antiquity, beginning with the collected works of Aristotle and the Natural History of Pliny the Elderthe latter having articles in 37 books.
Encyclopedias were published in Europe and China throughout the Middle Agessuch as the Satyricon of Martianus Minneus Felix Capella early 5th centurythe Speculum majus Great Mirror of Vincent of Beauvaisand Encyclopedia septem tomis distincta A Seven-Part Encyclopedia by Johann Heinrich Alsted Most early encyclopedias did not include biographies of living people and were written in Latinalthough some encyclopedias were translated into English, such as De proprietatibus rerum On the properties of things by Bartholomeus Anglicus.
However, English-composed encyclopedias appeared in the 18th century, beginning with Lexicon technicum, or A Universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences by John Harris two volumes, published andrespectivelywhich contained articles by such contributors as Isaac Newton.
Ephraim Chambers wrote a very popular two-volume Cyclopedia inwhich went through multiple editions and awakened publishers to the enormous profit potential of encyclopedias.
Although not all encyclopedias succeeded commercially, their elements sometimes inspired future encyclopedias; for example, the failed two-volume A Universal History of Arts and Sciences of Dennis de Coetlogon published grouped its topics into long self-contained treatises, an organization that likely inspired the "new plan" of the Britannica.
The first encyclopedia to include biographies of living people was the volume Grosses Universal-Lexicon published — of Johann Heinrich Zedlerwho argued that death alone should not render people notable. The Britannica was the idea of Colin Macfarquhara bookseller and printer, and Andrew Bellan engraver, both of Edinburgh. They conceived of the Britannica as a conservative reaction to the French Encyclopédie of Denis Diderot published —which was widely viewed as heretical.
Ironically, the Encyclopédie had begun as a French translation of the popular English encyclopedia, Cyclopaedia published by Ephraim Chambers in Although later editions of Chambers' Cyclopaedia were still popular, and despite the commercial failure of other English encyclopedias, Macfarquhar and Bell were inspired by the buying a dissertation 3rd edition ferment of the Scottish Enlightenment and thought the time ripe for a new encyclopedia "compiled upon a new plan".
Needing an editor, the two chose a year-old scholar named William Smellie who was offered pounds sterling to produce the encyclopedia in parts called "numbers" and equivalent to thick pamphletswhich were later bound into three volumes. The first number appeared on 10 December in Edinburgh, priced sixpence or 8 pence on finer paper. The numbers were buying a dissertation 3rd edition in three equally sized volumes covering A—B, C—L, and M—Z; an estimated 3, sets were eventually sold, priced at 12 pounds sterling apiece.
Three of the engravings in the section on midwifery, depicting childbirth in clinical detail, were sufficiently shocking to prompt some readers to tear those engravings out of the volume. The key idea that set the Britannica apart was to group related topics together into longer essays, that were then organized alphabetically.
Previous English encyclopedias had generally listed related terms separately in their alphabetical order, rather like a modern technical dictionary, an approach that the Britannica's' management derided as "dismembering the sciences". Smellie wrote most of the first edition, borrowing liberally from the authors of his era, including VoltaireBenjamin FranklinAlexander Pope and Samuel Johnson.
He later said: [4]. I wrote most of it, my lad, and snipped out from books enough material for the printer. With pastepot and scissors I composed it! The vivid prose and easy navigation of the first edition led to strong demand for a second.
Although this edition has been faulted for its imperfect scholarship, Smellie argued that the Britannica should be given buying a dissertation 3rd edition benefit of the doubt:.
With regard to errors in general, whether falling under the denomination of mental, typographical or accidental, we are conscious of being able to point out a greater number than any critic whatever. Men who are acquainted with the innumerable difficulties of attending the execution of a work of such an extensive nature will make proper allowances.
To these we appeal, and shall rest satisfied with the judgment they pronounce. Smellie strove to make Britannica as usable as possible, saying that "utility ought to be the principal intention of every publication.
Wherever this intention does not plainly appear, neither the books nor their authors have the smallest claim to the approbation of mankind".
The first edition was reprinted in Londonwith slight variants on the title page and a different preface, by Edward and Charles Dilly buying a dissertation 3rd edition and by John Donaldson in published a facsimile of the 1st edition, even including "age spots" on the paper.
This has been periodically reprinted and is still part of Britannica's product line. After the success of the buying a dissertation 3rd edition edition, a more ambitious second edition was begun inwith the addition of history and biography articles.
Macfarquhar took over the role himself, buying a dissertation 3rd edition, aided by pharmacist James TytlerM.
Tytler wrote many science and history articles and almost all of the minor articles; by Robert Burns ' estimate, Tytler wrote over three-quarters of the second edition. The second edition was published in numbers from 21 June to 18 September ; these numbers were bound into ten volumes dated —, having 8, pages and plates again engraved by Andrew Bell.
Most of the maps of this edition eighteen of them are found in a single page article, " Geography ". The second edition improved greatly upon the 1st, but is still notable for the large amount of now-archaic information it contained, buying a dissertation 3rd edition. For example, "Chemistry" goes into great detail on an obsolete system of what would now be called alchemy, in which earth, air, water and fire are named elements containing various amounts of phlogiston. Tytler also describes the architecture of Noah's Ark in detail illustrated with a copperplate engraving buying a dissertation 3rd edition, following Bishop Ussherincludes a remarkably precise chronology for the Earthbeginning with its creation on 23 October B.
and noting that the Great Flood of B. lasted for exactly days. The 2nd edition also reports a cure for tuberculosis :. He chose a spot of ground on which no plants had been sown, buying a dissertation 3rd edition, and there he made a hole large buying a dissertation 3rd edition deep enough to admit the patient up to the chin.
The interstices of the pit were then carefully filled up with the fresh mould, so that the earth might everywhere come in contact with the patient's body. In this situation the patient suffered to remain till he began to shiver or felt himself uneasy The patient was then taken out, and, after being wrapped in a linen cloth, was placed upon a mattress, buying a dissertation 3rd edition, and two hours afterwards his whole body was rubbed with the ointment composed of the leaves of the solanum nigrum and hog's lard.
and a somewhat melancholy article on " Love " that persisted in the Britannica for nearly a century until its 9th edition :. As the force of love prevails, sighs grow deeper; a tremor affects the heart and pulse; the countenance is alternately pale and red; the voice is suppressed in the sauces; the eyes grow dim; cold sweats break out; sleep absents itself, buying a dissertation 3rd edition, at least until the morning; the secretions become disturbed; and a loss of appetite, a hectic fever, melancholy, or perhaps madness, if not death, constitutes the buying a dissertation 3rd edition catastrophe.
Like the first edition, the second was sold in sections by subscription at buying a dissertation 3rd edition printing shop of Colin MacFarquhar. When finished incomplete sets were sold at Charles Elliot's book shop in Edinburgh for 10 pounds, unbound. Over 1, copies of the second edition were sold this way by Elliot in less than one year, [11] making the second edition enough of a financial success that a more ambitious third edition was begun a few years later.
The long period of time during which this edition was written makes the later volumes more updated than the earlier ones. Volume 10, published in after the Revolutionary War was over, gives in the buying a dissertation 3rd edition for Virginia: "Virginia, late one of the British colonies, now one of the United States of North America The following is a description of this capital before the commencement of the present American war. The causes of the Revolution are outlined concisely by Tytler in the article "Colonies" thus:.
Because several of the colonies had claimed the soul and exclusive right of imposing taxes upon themselves, the statute 6 Geo.
And the attempting to enforce this by other acts of Parliament, penalties, and at last by military power, gave rise, as is well known, to the present revolt of our colonies. A page appendix, written inis found at the end of Vol.
It does not have its own title page, but merely follows with pagination continuing from to The appendix introduces articles on Entomology, Ichthyology, Weather, Hindus spelled Gentoosand others, and contains many new biographies, including one of Captain James Cook.
It curiously contains 25 new pages on Air, which give very little new information about air itself, buying a dissertation 3rd edition, but mainly cover hot air ballooning, one of Tytler's hobbies.
The first page of the supplement begins with the words "Appendix containing articles omitted and others further explained or improved, together with corrections of errors and of wrong references.
The third edition was published from to in weekly numbers 1 shilling apiece ; these numbers were collected and sold unbound in 30 parts 10 shilling, sixpence eachbuying a dissertation 3rd edition, and finally in they were bound in 18 volumes with 14, pages and plates, and given title pages dated for all volumes. Macfarquhar again edited this edition up to "Mysteries" but died in aged 48 of "mental exhaustion"; his work was taken over by George Gleiglater Bishop Gleig of Brechin consecrated 30 October James Tytler again buying a dissertation 3rd edition heavily to the authorship, up to the letter M.
Nearly doubling the scope of the 2nd edition, buying a dissertation 3rd edition, Macfarquhar's encyclopedic vision was finally realized. Recruited by Gleig, several illustrious authorities contributed to this edition, such as Dr. Thomas Thomsonwho introduced modern chemical nomenclature in a chart appended to the Chemistry article, [15] and would go on to re-write that article in the supplement see belowand John RobisonSecretary of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, who wrote several well-regarded articles on sciences then called natural philosophy.
The third edition established the foundation of the Britannica as an important and definitive reference work for much of the next century. This edition was also enormously profitable, yielding 42, pounds sterling profit on the sale of roughly 10, copies. The 3rd edition began the tradition continued to this day of dedicating the Britannica to the reigning British monarch, then King George III. In the Supplement to the Third Edition, Gleig called him "the Father of Your People, and enlightened Patron of Arts, Sciences and Literature", and expressed:.
that, by the Wisdom of Your Councils, and the Vigour of Your Fleets and Armies, Your MAJESTY may be enabled soon to restore Peace to Europe; that You may again have leisure to extend Your Royal Care to the Improvement of Arts, buying a dissertation 3rd edition, and the Advancement of Knowledge; that You May Reign long over a Free, Happy and a Loyal People The 3rd edition is also famous for its bold article on "Motion", which erroneously rejects Isaac Newton 's theory of gravitation.
Instead, Dr. Gleig, or more likely, James Tytlerbuying a dissertation 3rd edition, wrote that gravity is caused by the classical element of fire. He seems to have been swayed by William Jones ' Essay on the First Principles of Natural Philosophywhich in turn was based on John Hutchinson's MA thesisMoses' Principiawhich was written in but rejected by Oxford University.
Nevertheless, Gleig was sanguine about the errors of the 3rd edition, echoing William Smellie 's sentiment in the 1st edition quoted above:. For perfection seems to be incompatible with the nature of works constructed on such a plan, and embracing such a variety of subjects. The first "American" encyclopedia, Dobson's Encyclopædiawas based almost entirely on the 3rd edition of the Britannica and published at nearly the same time —together with an analogous supplementby the Scottish-born printer, Thomas Dobson.
The first United States copyright law was passed on 30 May —although anticipated by Section 8 of Article I of the United States Constitution ratified 4 March —but did not buying a dissertation 3rd edition foreign publications such as the Britannica.
Unauthorized copying of the Britannica in America was also a problem with the 9th edition Unlicensed copies were also sold in Dublin by James Moore under the title, Moore's Dublin Edition, Encyclopædia Britannica ; this was an exact reproduction of the Britannica 's 3rd edition. A two-volume supplement to the third edition was published inhaving 1, buying a dissertation 3rd edition, pages and 50 copperplates by D.
A revised edition was published in This supplement was published by a wine-merchant, Thomas Bonarthe son-in-law of the Britannica's owner Andrew Bell ; unfortunately, the two men quarreled and they never spoke for the last ten years of Bell's life — Bonar was friendly to the article authors, however, and conceived the plan of paying them as well as the article reviewers, and of allowing them to retain copyright for separate publication of their work.
The Britannica explicitly positioned itself as a conservative publication in reaction to the radical French Encyclopédie of Diderot published between and Gleig elaborated on the editorial purpose of the Britannica. The French Encyclopédie had been accused, and justly accused, of having disseminated far and wide the seeds of anarchy and atheism. If the Encyclopædia Britannica shall in any degree counteract the tendency of that pestiferous work, even these two volumes will not be wholly unworthy of your Majesty's attention.
The fourth edition was begun in and completed incomprising 20 volumes with 16, pages buying a dissertation 3rd edition plates engraved by Andrew Bell. As with the 3rd edition, in which title pages were not printed until the set was complete, and all volumes were given title pages datedtitle pages for the 4th edition were sent to bookbinders indated that year for all volumes.
The editor was Dr. The mathematical articles of Prof.
Dissertation Results Chapter 101: Qualitative Methodology Studies
, time: 21:15History of the Encyclopædia Britannica - Wikipedia
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